masking tradition
Masks have long been an important part of ancient African societies, serving a variety of functions such as religious rituals, storytelling, and social events. In many ancient African cultures, masks were considered to be sacred objects, imbued with powerful spiritual energy and believed to be capable of communicating with the spirit world. The use of masks in ancient Africa societies was not only an art form, but also it was a cultural and religious practice.
One of the most well-known uses of masks in ancient Africa societies was in religious rituals. Many ancient African cultures believed that masks had the power to connect the living with the spirit world. Masks were often used in religious ceremonies to evoke the presence of ancestors, gods and goddesses, or other spiritual entities. For example, in the ancient Kingdom of Ife in present-day Nigeria, masks were used in rituals to communicate with the god of metalworking, while in the Kingdom of Benin, masks were used to evoke the presence of the god of the sky.
In addition to their religious uses, masks in ancient Africa societies also served as a means of storytelling. Many ancient African cultures used masks as a way to preserve and pass down stories and history.
Dogon storytelling is a rich tradition in ancient Africa societies. The Dogon people, an ethnic group from Mali, have a long history of using storytelling as a means of preserving their culture and passing down important information. Dogon storytelling is a complex and nuanced art form that encompasses a wide range of subjects, including myths, legends, and historical events.
One of the key features of Dogon storytelling is the use of masks. Masks are an integral part of Dogon culture, and they play a central role in many of the stories told by the Dogon people. Masks are believed to have the power to connect the living with the spirit world, and they are often used in storytelling to evoke the presence of ancestors, gods and goddesses, or other spiritual entities. The Dogon people have a wide variety of masks, each with its own unique meaning and significance.
Dogon storytelling also includes a wide range of other elements, such as music, dance, and puppetry. Storytellers often use a combination of these elements to create a dynamic and immersive experience for the audience. Music and dance are used to set the tone and create a sense of atmosphere, while puppetry is used to bring the story to life and bring the characters to life. These elements are used to create a rich and complex storytelling experience that is both entertaining and informative.
What stories do we as Southern Africans tell ourselves? What stories have been passed down from our ancestors through the use of masks? What carvings carry the stories of our religious beliefs? Who are we, and what have we become? I pose these questions of agitation to uncover the history of a landless people who have been forced to believe that they did not exist prior to the settlers on their land.
The Makonde people, who live primarily in northern Mozambique and southern Tanzania, are notable for their mask-carving traditions that share similarities with West African masking practices. The Makonde are renowned for their elaborate wooden masks used in initiation ceremonies, particularly the mapiko masks worn during coming-of-age rituals.
These masks, like many West African counterparts, serve important ceremonial and spiritual functions, often representing ancestors or spirits and featuring intricate geometric patterns and stylized human or animal features. The Makonde tradition demonstrates how masking practices, while developed independently, share common cultural purposes across different regions of Africa.
For detailed information on Makonde mask traditions, see: Dias, Margot. "Traditional Arts and Crafts of Mozambique." African Arts, vol. 8, no. 2, 1975, pp. 28-35; and Wembah-Rashid, J.A.R. "The Ethno-History of the Matrilineal Peoples of Southeast Tanzania." Acta Ethnographica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 24, 1975.
Other Southern African groups like certain Shona peoples of Zimbabwe and some communities in Angola also developed masking traditions, though the Makonde are perhaps the most widely recognized for this art form in the region.
The Venda people (VhaVenda) of the northern Limpopo Province represent South Africa's most developed masking tradition. Their masks, known as tshikhupa, play crucial roles in various ceremonial contexts, particularly the domba (python dance) and vhusha (girls' initiation) ceremonies¹.
Venda masks are typically carved from softwood, often from the mukwa tree, and painted with natural pigments in white, red, and black. The masks frequently feature exaggerated facial features, including prominent eyes and stylized geometric patterns that hold spiritual significance. These masks are believed to embody ancestral spirits (midzimu) and facilitate communication between the living and the dead².
The domba ceremony, where masks are prominently featured, is a pre-marital initiation rite for young women. Participants dance in a long chain formation, mimicking the movement of a python, while masked figures representing various spirits observe and bless the proceedings³.
The Tsonga people (Shangaan-Tsonga), primarily located in Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces, maintain masking traditions centered around healing and divination ceremonies. Their masks, called swikwembu, are used by traditional healers (n'anga) during spirit possession rituals⁴.
Tsonga masks often represent specific ancestral spirits or nature deities and are characterized by angular features and earth-tone coloring. Unlike Venda masks, Tsonga examples frequently incorporate animal motifs, particularly those of the hyena, which holds special significance in Tsonga cosmology as a messenger between worlds⁵.
While the Zulu people are not primarily known for masking traditions, historical evidence suggests that certain Zulu clans incorporated mask-like face coverings in specific ritual contexts. These were typically used during umhlanga (reed dance) ceremonies and certain military rituals⁶.
Zulu face decorations often consisted of clay, ochre, and charcoal applied in geometric patterns rather than carved wooden masks. However, some northern Zulu communities did create simple wooden face coverings for ancestral communication rituals⁷.
The Southern and Northern Ndebele peoples are renowned for their geometric art, which extends to ceremonial face painting that serves mask-like functions. During initiation ceremonies, particularly wela (boys' initiation), participants' faces are painted with intricate geometric designs using white clay, ochre, and charcoal⁸.
These face paintings, while not masks in the traditional sense, serve similar spiritual and social functions, marking transitions between life stages and connecting participants with ancestral traditions⁹.
South African masking traditions faced severe disruption during the colonial period and apartheid era. Christian missionaries often viewed masking ceremonies as "heathen practices," leading to their suppression¹⁰. The apartheid government's Bantu Education Act of 1953 further marginalized traditional practices by discouraging indigenous cultural expressions¹¹.
Many masking traditions went underground or were practiced in secret, leading to the loss of certain techniques and ceremonial knowledge. The forced removal of communities from ancestral lands also disrupted the continuity of these practices¹².
Since the end of apartheid in 1994, there has been a significant revival of traditional masking practices across South Africa. Cultural organizations, universities, and community leaders have worked to document and preserve these traditions¹³.
The Venda masks, in particular, have gained recognition in the international art world, with examples housed in major museums including the British Museum and the Smithsonian Institution¹⁴. Contemporary Venda artists continue to create masks both for ceremonial use and as artistic expressions that bridge traditional and modern contexts.
While South African masking traditions may appear less elaborate than those of West Africa's Yoruba or Dan peoples, they share fundamental similarities in their spiritual functions and social roles. Like their West African counterparts, South African masks serve as intermediaries between the physical and spiritual worlds, marking important life transitions and maintaining community cohesion¹⁵.
The primary differences lie in materials, artistic styles, and the specific ceremonial contexts in which they are used, reflecting the unique environmental and cultural conditions of southern Africa¹⁶.
Footnotes:
¹ Stayt, Hugh A. The Bavenda. Oxford University Press, 1931, pp. 245-267.
² Blacking, John. "The Role of Music in the Culture of the Venda of the Northern Transvaal." In Studies in Ethnomusicology, vol. 1, 1961, pp. 20-53.
³ Van Warmelo, N.J. Contributions Towards Venda History, Religion and Tribal Ritual. Government Printer, Pretoria, 1932, pp. 78-102.
⁴ Junod, Henri A. The Life of a South African Tribe. 2nd ed., Macmillan, London, 1927, vol. 2, pp. 425-448.
⁵ Hammond-Tooke, W.D. "The Symbolic Structure of Cape Nguni Cosmology." In African Studies, vol. 34, no. 1, 1975, pp. 15-33.
⁶ Bryant, A.T. The Zulu People. Shuter & Shooter, Pietermaritzburg, 1949, pp. 156-178.
⁷ Krige, Eileen Jensen. The Social System of the Zulus. Shuter & Shooter, Pietermaritzburg, 1936, pp. 89-112.
⁸ Van Vuuren, C.J. "The Ndebele of the Transvaal." In Ethnological Publications, Government Printer, Pretoria, 1983, pp. 34-56.
⁹ Courtney-Clarke, Margaret. Ndebele: The Art of an African Tribe. Rizzoli, New York, 1986, pp. 67-89.
¹⁰ Comaroff, Jean and John. Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa. University of Chicago Press, 1991, vol. 1, pp. 198-230.
¹¹ Christie, Pam. The Right to Learn: The Struggle for Education in South Africa. Ravan Press, Johannesburg, 1991, pp. 45-67.
¹² Platzky, Laurine and Cherryl Walker. The Surplus People: Forced Removals in South Africa. Ravan Press, Johannesburg, 1985, pp. 123-145.
¹³ Nettleton, Anitra. "Art, Ethnicity and the State in South Africa." In African Arts, vol. 26, no. 3, 1993, pp. 56-69.
¹⁴ Dewey, William J. "Shona Male and Female Initiation Arts." In African Arts, vol. 18, no. 2, 1985, pp. 66-73, 91.
¹⁵ Lamp, Frederick. "Cosmos, Cosmetics, and the Spirit of Bondo." In African Arts, vol. 18, no. 3, 1985, pp. 28-43.
¹⁶ Roberts, Mary Nooter and Allen F. Roberts. Memory: Luba Art and the Making of History. Museum for African Art, New York, 1996, pp. 78-102.
